In the modern world there is unprecedented access to the international world of opera. Opera is exciting and fun, and newcomers can take advantage of this to learn about what is happening in opera today. I am gathering together material from all my writings.
Romanticism in music followed two divergent paths: (1) toward the miniature forms of Lied and character piece for piano as established by Schubert and represented by Schumann, Mendelssohn and Chopin, and (2) toward the spectacular and grandiose in opera and symphony as established by Beethoven and represented by Meyerbeer, Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner.
Grand Opera
Grand opera began with Daniel Auber's (1782-1871) Le Muette de Portici (1828) in which a dumb girl leaped into the erupting Vesuvius. Rossini's last opera, William Tell (1929), was an attempt to imitate this popular new style characterized by
(a) obligatory spectacular scenes,
(b) death, not happy endings, in librettos by Scribe,
(c) potpourri overture,
(d) extended ornate arias,
(e) chorus and ballet, and
(f) a new heavier type of dramatic tenor as the featured hero.
Gilbert
Duprez, a famous French tenor, changed the history of opera forever. by
singing a high C in chest in the premier performance of Rossini's
Guglielmo Tell in Italy in 1831. This style of singing became hugely popular and is generally the style of singing for tenors in opera today.
Other opera were Giacomo Meyerbeer's (1791-1864) Robert le Diable (1831), Les Huguenots (1836) and Le Prophète (1849), and Jacques Halévy's (1799-1862) La Juive (1835).
Italian Opera
This period is called bel canto. Orchestral accompaniment used throughout the opera broke down the distinction between recitative and aria, resulting in long formally flexible sections in Vincenzo Bellini's (1801-35) Norma (1831), La Sonnambula (1831) and I Puritani (1835) and Gaetano Donizetti's (1797-1848) Lucia di Lammermore(1835).
German opera
Sentimental light operas were Hans Heiling (1833) by Heinrich Marschner (1795-1861), Zar und Zimmerman (1837) by Albert Lortzing (1801-51) and Martha (1847) by Friedrich von Flotow (1812-83). Richard Wagner's (1813-83) Rienzi (1840) was a grand opera, and Der fliegende Holländer (1842) was in the Weber tradition.
Russian Opera
Russian opera was established by Michael Glinka (1804-57) in A Life for the Tsar (1836) and Russlan and Lyudmilla (1842), the first realization of nationalism in music.
Oratorio
Influenced by Bach and Handel, Felix Mendelssohn (1809-47) composed the sentimental oratorios St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846). Also considered a secular oratorio is The Damnation of Faust (1846) by Hector Berlioz (1803-69).
Choral Music
Secular cantatas were Mendelssohn's Erste Walpurgisnacht (1832) and Robert Schumann's (1803-56) Paradise and the Peri (1843) and Scenes from Goethe's "Faust" (1844-53). Important liturgical music were Rossini's Stabat Mater (1832) and the huge Requiem (1837) of Berlioz.
Lied
Though Mendelssohn was also important, Schumann was the outstanding Lieder composer, especially in the song cycles Dichterliebe (1840) and Frauenliebe und Leben (1840).
French Song
The first French song cycle was Berlioz Les Nuits d'Été (1841). It became the first orchestral song cycle when he orchestrated it in 1856.
Overture
While Beethoven's overtures and Mendelssohn's Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream (1826) were written to precede theatrical performances, Mendelssohn's Hebrides (1832) and Berlioz' Roman Carnival (1844) were character pieces in modified sonata-allegro form composed for concert use.
This is the generation of Verdi and Brahms, not just Liszt and Wagner. Liszt introduces the symphonic poem and Wagner the music drama.
Music Drama
The logical extreme of the program symphony, traits of Wagner's late operas were
(a) his own librettos on medieval German myths (first used in Dutchman),
(b) continuous music through continual modulation and avoidance of perfect cadences,
(c) no clear-cut arias and expanded recitative (first in Rheingold),
(d) thick romantic orchestration,
(e) a system of themes, called leitmotifs, connected to persons, objects or ideas in the drama (also first in Dutchman), and
(f) equal importance of visual and dramatic arts in the Gesamtkunstwerk.
Tannhäuser (1845) and Lohengrin (1850) were still number operas. Though he began composing the Ring in 1853, Tristan und Isolde (1865) was the first music drama to be produced, followed by Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (1868). The four operas of Der Ring des Nibelungen, 1. Das Rheingold (1869), 2. Die Walküre (1870), 3. Siegfried, and 4. Die Götterdämmerung were produced together in Bayreuth in 1876.
Italian Opera
Italian opera was dominated by Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) who capitalized on the strengths of Grand Opera in melodramatic plots, popular melodies and effective vocal display pieces. His mature operas began with Rigoletto (1851) and included Il Trovatore (1853), La Traviata (1853), Un Ballo in Maschera (1859), Don Carlos (1867) and Aida (1871).
French Opera
Grand Opera continued in Meyerbeer's L'Africaine (1865). Popular sentimental operas were Mignon (1866) by Ambroise Thomas (1811-96) and Faust (1859) and Roméo et Juliette (1867) by Charles Gounod (1818-93). Berlioz' Béatrice et Bénédict (1862) and Les Troyens (Part II 1863, Part I 1890) failed to establish him as an opera composer.
Opéra Bouffe
Jacques Offenbach (1819-80) created the prototype for the operetta in his Orpheus in the Underworld (1858) and La Belle Hélène (1864).
Czech Opera
The Bartered Bride (1866) by Bedrich Smetana (1824-84) began the second nationalist school in Czechoslovakia.
Oratorio
The most important oratorios were Berlioz' L'Enfance du Christ (1854) and Franz Liszt's (1811-86) Christus (1856) and Legend of St. Elizabeth (1857-62). Ein deutsches Requiem (1868) by Johannes Brahms (1833-97) can also be considered an oratorio.
Lied
Lieder were by Liszt, Peter Cornelius (1824-74), Adolf Jensen (1837-79), Robert Franz (1815-92) and Brahms, especially his Magelone (1861) cycle. Wagner's cycle, Wesendonck Lieder (1857-8), was composed in both piano and orchestral versions.
Orchestra
Wagner's orchestra benefited from the newly improved woodwinds with the Böhm key system and the recently perfected valve horns and valve trumpets first used in Halévy's La Juive (1835). Wagner's standard orchestra was three of each woodwind (with the third player doubling on piccolo, English horn, bass clarinet or double bassoon), four horns, three trumpets, three trombones, tuba, timpani, harp and strings. For the Ring he added another flute, oboe, clarinet, trumpet and trombone along with four more horns which doubled on Wagner tubas, another pair of timpani and other percussion, six harps and augmented strings.
Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser was first performed in Dresden in 1845, and the
music is French grand opera in German.
The Minnisinger (German version of a troubadour) must choose between the sensuality of Venus and the simple love of home.
What is this opera about?
The Minnesingers Tannhäuser and Wolfram were real people, but Tannhäuser is the subject of a myth where he spends a year in the grotto of Venus. Everyone else in the story is horrified with this departure from the strictures of Christianity. The plot of the opera covers the end of his time with Venus through his return to normal life. I think it's probably all a myth. Wagner was particularly attracted to German mythology.
The Story
Act I
We are in the Venusberg. There is an extended ballet called The Venusberg Music, followed by a duet between Venus and Tannhäuser. After the dancing, Tannhäuser tells Venus that he has dreamed of the
sound of bells and wishes to return to the surface where he will be able
to see the sun and the seasons. He has tired of constant love making.
He tells her he is leaving to follow the virgin Mary.
In the next scene he is found lying on the ground with his harp next to a
roadside shrine to Mary. Pilgrims pass by on their way to Rome. Then a
group of minstrels pass by and recognize him. Wolfram convinces
Tannhäuser to return with him to bring comfort to Elisabeth who loves
him.
Act II
Hit Tune
We are in the hall where the singing contest is to take place. Elisabeth enters the hall of the singing competitions and knowing that
Tannhäuser has returned, joyfully sings "Dich teure Halle" (treasured
hall), the place where she fell in love with a singer.
This scene includes a singing competition where each contestant is to
describe the true meaning of love. Wolfram begins and describes an
abstract and idealistic kind of love. Everyone praises this except
Tannhäuser who leaps up to sing that no one can know about love who has
not been with Venus. Everyone is shocked, especially Elisabeth. Since
this whole scene was arranged for the sake of Elisabeth, he realises he
has messed up. She pleads for them not to kill him, and he agrees to go
to Rome with the pilgrims to seek forgiveness from the Pope.
Act III
Finally we return to the road seen in the second scene. Elisabeth is
there waiting for the pilgrims to return from Rome. We hear the famous
pilgrim's chorus while she searches for Tannhäuser.
Hit Tune
If he is there, it
means the Pope has forgiven him. He is not, and she goes off and dies.
Hit Tune
Wolfram sings the very beautiful "O du mein holder Abendstern" to the
evening star, which curiously is Venus. "Oh evening star, greet her as her soul passes
by."
Tannhäuser returns complaining bitterly and wanting to return to
Venusberg. The Pope has refused him. We see Venus pleading in the
distance, but when Elisabeth's body is brought in, he dies, too. Too
late they realize that the staff has bloomed, indicating that he is
forgiven.
All of these operas are in the 100 most performed. It is interesting, at least to me, that his most popular opera is the one most like a Grand Opera. There is no listing for librettists because Wagner wrote his own librettos.
I decided that I needed to know more about Faust. We are hitting only the highlights. To get an idea of how big the influence of the Faust legend is see this list.
I
I called the original Faust a German myth. Apparently others call it a legend. One reliable source (EB) says that the original Johann Georg Faust (c. 1480–1540) lived in the time of Martin Luther and practiced the dark arts of wizardry, magic and astrology. This is rather a different idea than Goethe’s Faust. The Faust legend became the subject of extensive theological discussion. Martin Luther was concerned that Protestantism would become associated with the practices of Faust and fought hard against him.
II
Between 1589 and 1592 Christopher Marlowe wrote a play usually referred to as Doctor Faustus. Calling Faust Doctor Faustus means pretty much the same thing it does now. He has advanced to the top of academia. This is an interesting work where Faust gives up his soul in order to gain magical powers for a specified time period. He accomplishes nothing useful but uses his gifts to perform tricks for the nobility. He goes to hell when his time runs out.
I don’t have to go into all the details. Clearly in this early period the subject matter of Faust’s knowledge and studies is significant. Marlowe’s play represents the Calvinist position where salvation is preordained. He is condemned for his magical practices and cannot be saved.
Mephistopheles was a folklore figure in the Faust legend. He becomes a stock character. It's best seen as a play for special effects. Marlowe establishes the idea that Faust gets his magic powers from the Devil.
III
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s play Faust part 1 and part 2 (1806-1832) was the next landmark in the life of this legend. Only part 1 is regularly staged. It is regarded as a great monument of German literature. For our purposes we will concern ourselves only with part 1.
It is Goethe who transforms the legend into something else. Originally it is Faust himself who leads himself into darkness, perhaps with the devil's help, but not entirely. In Goethe it is rather like the tale of Job where God challenges the Devil to lead his exemplary man to hell. The Devil gives it his best shot. Faust is a learned man but his studies are here regarded as good. Mephistopheles enters into Faust's life as a dog who follows him home.
It is also Goethe who introduces Marguerite into the story. We are to presume that Faust, the saintly scholar, is sexually inexperienced. Here it becomes a transaction. Faust may have anything he wants on earth, while the Devil alone has power in hell. It is a witch who turns Faust into a young man. Valentine, Marguerite's brother, first appears here.
Goethe's Marguerite donates Mephistopheles' jewels to the church, but is led to ruin anyway. The Devil thinks Faust would be tempted by a Walpurgis Nacht. Perhaps this links us back to the original legend where Faust is attracted to the dark arts. Here he isn't.
The Marguerite story is extended through several scenes where she kills her mother, gives birth Faust's child, kills her child and is sent to prison. At the very end she prays for salvation and is saved. This does not sound like a Calvinist perspective. The story of Faust continues into part 2. Faust has only to say to the Devil, "this is beautiful, stop here," and Faust's soul is his.
IV
It's after this that musicians become interested. The first piece that has remained in the repertoire is Hector Berlioz' La damnation de Faust (1846). This is intended to be a concert piece, but is often fully staged. The prologue in heaven where God makes a bargain with the Devil does not appear. Instead Faust is an old man who has become tired of life and wants to kill himself. Méphistophélès appears and offers him something to live for. They travel together to several locations, but Faust doesn't become interested until Marguerite enters the picture.
Berlioz focuses on Marguerite much like Goethe, but shows Faust's continuing interest in science in this aria. The presence of a love story makes it more suitable as an opera plot. At the end Marguerite is saved but Faust goes to hell. The musical style is fully romantic.
V
The most famous of all the Faust operas is Charles Gounod's Faust
(1859). For about 50 years it was the most popular opera just about
everywhere, but then it faded considerably. Gounod's Faust summons the Devil to his study when after a long life in science, he finds that he has accomplished nothing and wants to kill himself. Mephistopheles makes a bargain with Faust that he will show him something he cannot resist. God's complicity in this bargain is not shown. After changing him into a young man, the Devil takes Faust out to get drunk in a bar. Faust is uninterested. Marguerite is next. The above aria is Faust's reaction to her.
This is my favorite aria from Gounod's Faust, sung here by my favorite baritone, Dmitri Hvorostovsky, in the role of Marguerite's brother Valentin. This is just before he leaves her to go off to war. He gives responsibility for her to Siebel who appears only in this opera.
Here Above we have the original
version of "Diamonds are a girl's best friend."
The Walpurgis Nacht comes in the form of a ballet which is usually omitted. Faust returns to Marguerite in her prison cell. She is saved by an angel, but Faust continues on with Mephistopheles. In the recent production from London he turns back into an old man.
We have wandered far from the original legend which concerned itself with Faust's interests as a scholar to the mere boredom of an old man who has accomplished nothing with his life. The Met's attempt to drag it back by casting Faust as a nuclear scientist who regrets what he has spent his time doing. We have the fully romantic music of one Faust and the story of another.
It is good to stop for a moment and point out the difference between Gounod and Goethe. Goethe is clear that Faust the academic is a good man favored by God. Gounod's Faust is just a bored old man. The worst thing about this opera is the fact that both Faust and Valentin praise Marguerite for her chastity and purity. Then Faust leads her into darkness with hardly a backward look. Valentin abandons her. She is saved in the end through God's grace. This is seen as a Christian message because God can forgive anything. Someone has pointed out to me that Gounod was a Catholic, and that we have here more of a Catholic perspective.
VI
Not too long after Gounod's opera came Arrigo Boito's Mefistofele (1868). I know this opera from glorious performances in San Francisco starring Samuel Ramey. Boito restores Goethe's prologue in heaven where Mefistofele challenges God for the soul of his servant Faust. It was a failure at its initial performance at La Scala, Milan.
Faust agrees to give up his soul in return for bliss on earth. The Marguerite part of the story is similar to Gounod, except in addition to killing her child, she poisons her mother. She repents of her sins, and the angels save her.
At the end Mefistofele and Faust return to heaven for the final judgment. Faust is saved.
I think it is the music which speaks against this opera, Boito's only composed opera. Boito is almost modern in his style. The contrast to Gounod's music is enormous. The version with Samuel Ramey is highly recommended. Without Ramey does it work at all?
VII
Ferruccio Busoni in his Doktor Faust (1916–25) writes his own libretto in German. This opera was presented at the San Francisco Opera in June, 2004. I attended one of these performances and was completely confused. Now that I see the plot description, I can understand why. It was done as a regie production in modern dress in what appears to be a modern factory of some kind. To add to the confusion Faust is a baritone and Mephistopheles is a tenor.
God is not involved. Faust the academic is visited by mysterious figures who give him a book. He follows the instructions in the book, draws a circle on the floor and summons the Devil. Marguerite's brother is a character whom Faust kills, but she herself does not appear. Clearly we have wandered far from Goethe but closer to Marlowe.
Faust appears as a magician at the court of the Duke of Parma where he seduces and elopes with the Duchess of Parma. I can't imagine how this fits in with a factory. At the end he performs some kind of magic trick where he falls dead and gives his life to another. I think it would be necessary to study this extensively to have any hope of understanding what was going on.
VIII
It might be possible to regard Igor Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress (1951) as a Faust opera. It's a bit of a stretch. The Devil makes an appearance.
It has also been pointed out to me that Damn Yankees is also a Faust story.
Verdi's Don Carlos had its premier in Paris in 1867, and was originally in French. It comes in various versions, but is almost always performed in Italian. There was a period of about 50 years when no one performed Don Carlo at all, but now it is considered one of Verdi's greatest operas.
The Story
Act I
Scene 1. The Forest of Fontainebleau, France in winter
The scene begins with a chorus of
complaining peasants. Sometimes the whole scene is cut. The plot has to do with Spain and Flanders, so
complaining French peasants never come up again. Perhaps they are
included to show how they love Elisabetta. Carlo and Elisabetta meet and fall in love. The scene ends with
the announcement that Elisabetta will marry Philip II, king of Spain,
and not Carlo, as part of a peace treaty between Spain and France. She
takes it better than he does.
Act II
Scene 2: The monastery of Saint-Just
in Spain
Sometimes the opera starts here. Don
Carlo meets with his friend Posa, sung by Thomas Hampson. Carlo wants
to talk about Elisabetta, and Posa wants to talk about conditions in
Flanders where the Catholic Philip II is persecuting the Lutherans of
Flanders. They sing the gorgeous friends duet.
Hit Tune
Scene 3: A garden near Saint-Just
Elisabetta
is with her ladies in waiting. Eboli, sung by Ekaterina Semenchuk, is
introduced with a song. Posa and Eboli help to arrange for Carlo to be
alone with Elisabetta, and a rather torrid love scene ensues. They are
rolling around on the floor and Elisabetta says, "so you want to kill
your father and marry your mother." This cools him off, and he leaves.
The king enters and is furious because the queen has been left alone.
He sends one of her women back to France.
Act III
Scene 4: Evening in the Queen's garden in Madrid
The celebration of the
anniversary of the ascension of Philip II to the throne of Spain has
begun. We hear celebratory music and see costumes and decorations that
resemble carnival, including masks. The queen and Eboli appear, the
queen complains that she is tired and wants to go pray, and asks Eboli
to take her place at the celebration. She removes her outer garments,
including a head piece, and Eboli puts them on. Elisabetta leaves.
Eboli
writes a note for Carlo, and he enters thinking Eboli is Elisabetta.
This is much clearer if we have just seen them exchange clothing. Carlo
is passionate until he realizes it is actually Eboli. Eboli is not
happy with this, as she is in love with Carlo. Posa enters, Eboli
threatens to rat on Carlo, and Posa tries to stab her. Carlo prevents
this, but Eboli is still angry. There is an extended trio with a lot of
intensity.
Scene 5: In front of the Cathedral of Valladolid
This
is called the "Auto-da-fé" or "act of faith" scene and features the
burning of heretics condemned by the Inquisition. The events go:
heretics are dragged in; Flemish ambassadors appear and plead their case
to the king with Posa and Carlo arguing on their side (shown above);
the king refuses their plea and has them arrested and taken away; Carlo
gets angry, pulls his sword and threatens the king; no one will confront
Carlo until Posa steps forward and orders Carlo to give him his sword;
Carlo obeys and the king immediately makes Posa a Duke and has Carlo
arrested. Finally the king and queen take their places and the heretics
are burned.
Act IV
Scene 6: Dawn in King Philip's study in Madrid
Hit Tune
Elisabetta
enters and the king confronts her about the portrait. She faints.
This is the female version of when in doubt punt. If things aren't
going well, faint. Eboli and Posa are also in this scene. When
Elisabetta wakens, Eboli admits that it was she who gave the jewelry box
to the king. Everyone else leaves, and Eboli sings her big aria "O don
fatale." She vows to try to save Carlo.
Hit Tune
Scene 7: A prison
Posa
visits Carlo in jail where a shadowy figure kills him. I don't seem to
have ever known what was going on here except that Posa dies. The
question is who killed Posa? We see two men, both in dark robes, one
with a soldier's helmet and one with a hood. The one in the helmet
shoots Posa. Did the king give in to the Grand Inquisitor or did the
Grand Inquisitor take care of matters on his own?
Hampson
struggles with the heavier parts of this scene but excels at the
sweeter parts. He dies in close-up, very nicely. Carlo cries. Philip
comes in bragging that he has killed him. Carlo curses him. Such
emotion. Kaufmann is magnificent in his anger; his intensity is the
secret of his fame.
Act V
Scene 8: The moonlit monastery of Yuste
Hit Tune
This
opera is a patchwork, a many times reworked patchwork. We put in some
stuff. We take some of it out. We put in some more. Etc. We love the
music, so we don't mind so much that the story is so disorganized. In
contrast La Forza del Destino is much easier to follow but is implausible.
