In the modern world there is unprecedented access to the international world of opera. Opera is exciting and fun, and newcomers can take advantage of this to learn about what is happening in opera today. I am gathering together material from all my writings.
1740-1760 is Handel's oratorio period, when all types of comic operas replaced the public's interest in serious opera. In this period Gluck was a standard Italian opera composer. Rameau is strong in this period, but for the beginner you should just skip it. Nothing rises to the level of standard repertoire.
The transition from baroque to classic style, begun in the style galant of Couperin, consisted of
(a) the sudden collapse and disappearance of the German polyphonic style,
(b) a more gradual shift of popular interest away from opera to the new symphony and within opera from the international opera seria to the national comic opera genres and
(c) the establishment of tonality and modulation as the chief means of musical expression. After this everything is tonal.
Sophisticated librettos by Carlo Goldoni (1707-93) represented contemporary figures in realistic situations with natural voices, therefore, there were
(a) very few castrati,
(b) bass soloists in
(c) secco recitative,
(d) flexible arias and
(e) important ensemble finales.
Works were Il Filisofo di campagna (1754) by Baldassare Galuppi (1706-85), La Buona figliuola (1760) by Niccolo Piccinni (1728-1800), and Gluck's Il Tigrane (1743).
Oratorio
When his opera ventures failed, Handel turned to oratorio in English, beginning with Israel in Egypt (1737), and including Messiah (1742), Samson (1743), Semele (1744), Judas Maccabeus (1746), Solomon (1749), and Jephtha (1752). He used fewer da capo arias, varied the degree of difficulty
in order to use English singers, and adapted English choral polyphony to
his own Italianate style. Graun's Der Tod Jesu (1755) was a pale rival. These works are often presented as staged operas today.
Opéra-comique
The enormous popular success of Pergolesi's La serva padrona in Paris in 1752 set off the War of the Buffons between supporters of comic opera and defenders of the grand opera. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) composed Le Devin du village (1752) as a model opéra-comique.
Singspiel
Coffey's English ballad opera The Devil to Pay was sung in Germany in 1743 and then reset by J.C. Standfuss in 1752 as Der Teufel ist los, the first Singspiel.
1. La Traviata, Verdi*
2. Carmen, Bizet*
3. La Bohème, Puccini*
4. The Magic Flute, Mozart*
5. Tosca, Puccini*
6. Madame Butterfly, Puccini*
7. The Barber of Seville, Rossini*
8. The Marriage of Figaro, Mozart*
9. Rigoletto, Verdi*
10. Don Giovanni, Mozart*
11. Die Fledermaus, Johann Strauss*
12. Aïda, Verdi*
13. L'elisir d'amore, Donizetti
14. Cosi fan tutte, Mozart*
15. Hänsel und Gretel, Humperdinck
16. Eugene Onegin, Tchaikovsky
17. Turandot, Puccini*
18. Nabucco, Verdi
19. Pagliacci, Leoncavallo
20. Il trovatore, Verdi
21. Lucia di Lammermoor, Donizetti
22. Die lustige Witwe, Lehár
23. Cavalleria rusticana, Mascagni
24. Un ballo in maschera, Verdi*
25. Otello, Verdi
One of the
things that has changed about opera since I began noticing it is that
Leoš Janáček (1854 – 1928) has moved into the standard repertoire.
He is considered modern even though his
dates fit somewhere around Puccini, who is definitely not considered
modern. So what makes him modern? His Czech compatriots, Smetana and
Dvorak, went to a lot of trouble to fit into the Romantic idiom of their
German colleagues in order to gain acceptance in the mainstream.
Janáček clearly didn't do this. He appears to have decided on a specific
style based on Moravian melodies and Czech national idioms without
particularly caring to seem like everyone else. This bothered his
contemporaries, but apparently it doesn't bother us. It's rather like
the difference between Tchaikovsky and Mussorgsky. Janáček's operas are
singable, always a prime consideration, and his plots are about people
we recognize.
Charles Mackerras carefully reconstructed the original cut and orchestration for Jenufa after it had been performed for decades in a romantic form,
and it is more popular now in this original version. I don't think we
hear Janáček as modern. Does he remind you of Bartók, a fellow
ethnomusiciologist? Or Berg? He doesn't have the iconoclastic purpose
that is the fundamental definition of modernism. He's just doing his own
thing. After listening to modernists for decades, we're unthreatened by
Janáček. He's comfortable and just different enough to be interesting.
His most popular operas are:
Jenůfa, #61, libretto by the composer after Gabriela Preissová (1904)
Katya Kabanova, libretto by Vincenc Červinka, after Alexander Ostrovsky's The Storm (1921 original, 1992 Sir Charles Mackerras version published.)
The Cunning Little Vixen, #96, libretto by the composer, after Rudolf Těsnohlídek and Stanislav Lolek (1924)
The Makropoulos Affair, libretto by the composer, after Karel Čapek (1926 original, 1964 Sir Charles Mackerras version )
From the House of the Dead, libretto by the composer, after Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1927)
Gluck has always puzzled me. In music history books he gets a whole chapter named after himself and is treated as some kind of big deal. He reformed opera. The only problem is that these operas are never done. If he rates a whole chapter, I thought, how come I never hear him? I learned "Che faro senza Euridice" and "O del mio dolce ardor" like everyone else, but that was the limit of my contact with him. Between my youth and today there has been much increase in interest in Gluck.
Christoph Willibald (von) Gluck was born in 1714 and grew up during the period of the collapse of counterpoint that happened near the end of Bach's life. By 1740 this collapse was complete. It was the complete disappearance of counterpoint that led Bach to write The Art of the Fugue. So you shouldn't be concerned that Handel said that Gluck knew as much counterpoint as his cook. Or that Metastasio called Gluck's music "barbaric." He was the younger generation.
Cecilia Bartoli recorded an album of Gluck arias, but they were entirely in the Italian style, not the later reform operas. Until the appearance of this album I was not aware that Gluck had composed so much opera seria, including libretti by Metastasio. These operas are performed even less often than the reform operas. The predominate operatic style in Gluck's era was still Neapolitan opera buffa and opera seria.
In 1752 Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote his opera Le Devin du Village and had it performed for the king of France. He was not concerned about the fact that that he was not a composer, nor should he have been. The point of Rousseau writing an opera was to change people's attitude about opera. It's opera for ordinary people. The enormous popular success of Pergolesi’s La serva padrona in Paris occurred that same year. These are comic operas devoid of pomp and serious music. They are for fun.
I put this in an article about Gluck because these were enormously influential in their time, and their influence extended to Gluck who sponsored opéra comique in Vienna. Gluck was right in the middle of a period devoted to the dumbing down of music. They liked folk songs and extreme simplicity. The re-intellectualizing of music was done in the structural advances of Haydn and Mozart. Not Gluck.
I am trying to explain to myself the experience of seeing Iphigénie en Tauride last night at the San Francisco Opera. It simply isn't like anything I've ever heard. The opera was first performed in Paris in 1779 and is considered the ultimate expression of Gluck's reforms. He was aiming for this.
There's no ballet. The San Francisco Opera's production included a lot of ballet work, but none of it is in pieces intended to be ballet. There's no coloratura at all. Not even tiny hints of it. The men's parts are written for men's normal voices. There's no secco recitative, and you have to be really paying attention to catch the transitions from recitative to aria. Clue: the harpsichord goes in and out, in for the recitative, out for the arias and other concerted pieces. There are arias, but they could have been folk songs. If it weren't for occasional high notes, how would we know it was an opera? The orchestration is not fully classical. Nor is it Baroque. He just fools around with sonorities in a completely homophonic texture. I like more to hook my ears to than this.
The plot is unrelentingly grim. Iphegenie is required to kill two men simply because they are strangers. They turn out to be from Mycenae, her home, and she finds out from them what has happened to her parents. They talk endlessly about killing and death, but only King Troas actually dies. Eventually she finds out that one of the two men is her brother Orestes. There is a very nice deus ex machina at the end that ends the curse of Agamemnon's family.
I think the significance of Gluck derives from hind sight. German historians like anyone who has a theory to go with whatever music they are writing. We might have liked Wagner without knowing he had a theory, but would anyone care about Schoenberg if he didn't have a theory? Would anyone listen to these reform operas if we didn't think Gluck was a forerunner of through-composed style operas of the nineteenth century? The existence of the theory seems to validate the significance of the work. Actually enjoying listening to it doesn't seem to be important.
If he was so influential, who did he influence? Where is the vogue he started? Mozart is supposed to be influenced by Gluck, but I don't hear it. Mozart wrote real arias and never abandoned secco recitative. He composed Metastasio just like everyone else. Idomeneo is structurally looser than opera seria generally is. Is this the influence they are talking about? Gluck's reform operas weren't popular enough in Vienna for Mozart to want to imitate them.
I didn't mind the minimalist production--everything was black except for a few words written on the walls. EPHEGENIE. AGAMEMNON. CLYTEMNESTRA. This successfully clarified the plot for me. A bit more differentiation between characters might have helped. It was hard to tell Bo Skovhus as Orestes from Paul Groves as Pylades. Their voices were remarkably similar and occupied a remarkably similar pitch range. Susan Graham was very good. Her voice is lyrical and sweet. A heavier sound in this role would have produced a different opera. Heidi Melton stood in the auditorium while singing Diane, the deus ex machina, thus saving the expense of any actual machinery. She has a huge blasting voice in startling contrast to the mortals in the opera.
It was a lot less boring than it should have been.
I have been working on my essays about the history of singing (see technique) and have decided I am missing a chapter on Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck. I have always been a doubter and expressed my doubts in this essay on the occasion of seeing a performance of Iphigénie en Tauride.
Since then I have experienced quite a bit of Gluck: two versions of Orfeo ed Euridice and one of Alceste. I still think there is no evidence that he influenced the Italians, but Wikipedia claims that he was actually quite popular in both Vienna and Paris. If the reform operas were popular, there is reason to believe they may also have been influential.
Gluck's life (1714-1787) substantially overlapped with that of Metastasio (1698-1782), the Italian opera librettist. Their careers were also substantially at the same court in Vienna where Metastasio lived from 1730. Metastasio's verses were intended for the florid Italian style which Gluck eventually rejected. It would appear that the two very different reform movements went on almost simultaneously. All the tracks on Cecilia Bartoli's Gluck album are on librettos by Metastasio.
When Gluck presented his first French opera Iphigénie en Aulide in Paris in 1774, it set off a virtual war with the proponents of Neapolitan style opera. Nothing is better for opera than quarreling. Far better than one style of opera that we love or care nothing for is two styles of opera that people can fight over. Today it is Eurotrash vs traditional staging that we fight over, though I would have to say Eurotrash seems to be winning.
He hated the formal structure of the da capo aria, especially the long instrumental introduction to the aria common in operas by Handel and the Italians, which would then be repeated in the da capo section. Here we may sympathize. Nowadays we are amused by the challenge of staging these irrelevant instrumental interludes. We stage the singers to ride up and down on escalators to fill up the time, e.g. Eventually everyone tired of the da capo aria.
Gluck’s operas are never in German, but they are still very much part of a German sensibility. To sing them does not require the lightness of Italian singing, but neither does it imply the heavy intensity of Beethoven’s Leonora. He is lumped stylistically with Mozart, but Mozart was not above expressing through coloratura and did not hesitate to compose some for a particular soprano. Mozart never falls into the kind of lugubrious monotony Gluck is often guilty of.
Gluck's operas appear to sing relatively well in a monotonous pre-Wagnerian sort of way. Alceste is very suitable to the Wagnerian technique of Christine Brewer. I'm thinking the whole thing over.
Callas is the only one who approaches the take no prisoners style I prefer for this aria.
It occurs to me that Gluck will have been the first to create a style
of opera that could compete with the Italians on the international
stage. French opera, which we must presume was popular in France, never
accomplished this. I still see it as an alternative to Italian opera
rather than an improvement on it. Italian Opera shall be presumed to be
opera in Italian written by people from Italy and performed in Italy,
and not German guys writing opera for Vienna.
This new strain of opera cannot be said to have won over the Italians until late Verdi a century later.
The
problem I seem to be having is that I made it all the way to my seventh
decade before ever seeing a staged Gluck opera. It's a little hard to
think he's all that great if no one ever does him.
1756-73 Seven Years War, Prussia & England vs Austria & France
1760-1820 George III, England
1774-92 Louis XVI, France
1776 American Revolution
This is the generation of Gluck's reform opera, first in Vienna, then in Paris. It is also the generation of Mozart's youth and Haydn's formal development of what became of the classical symphony. Bach's children and the later Mannheimers are also prominent.
Vocal Music
Reform opera
No longer guaranteed success in opera seria, Gluck composing in Vienna, wrote the dramatic ballet Don Juan (1761) which was greatly influenced by Jean-Georges Noverre's (1727-1810) treatise Lettre sur la danse (1760) emphasizing mime and gesture. Then with Ranieri de' Calzabigi (1714-95), librettist, he composed Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), the first reform opera. His reforms included
(a) important use of chorus and ballet,
(b) flexible aria forms from opera buffa,
(c) orchestral recitative,
(d) decreased use of vocal ornamentation and cadenzas, and
(e) a return to Greek myth plots.
Other Italian operas with Calzabigi were Alceste (1767) and Paride ed Elena (1769). When the latter was not successful, Gluck moved to Paris where he achieved success in French with Iphegenie en Aulide (1774), Armide (1777) and Iphegenie en Tauride (1779). He adapted Orphée et Euridice (1774) by changing Orfeo from an alto castrato to a tenor, and Alceste (1776).
Opera seria
The stagnant condition of opera seria is well illustrated in the repeated settings of Metastasio's libretti: his Poro or Alessandro nell'Indie was composed by Porpora, Hasse and Handel in 1731, Gluck in 1764, Johann Christian Bach (1735-82) in 1762, Antonio Sacchini (1730-86) in 1763, Piccinni in 1774 and Cimarosa in 1781.
Opéra-comique
With librettos by Charles Simon Favart (1710-92), it used spoken dialogue, simple ariettes and no ensembles or choruses. Examples were Recontre imprévue (1764) by Gluck, Tom Jones (1765) by F. A. Danican Philidor (1726-95), Le Déserteur (1769) by Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny (1729-1817) and Zemire et Azor (1769) by André Ernest Gretry (1742-1813).
Singspiel
Modeled after the opéra-comique, it included some ensembles and choruses. Examples were Die Jagd (1770) by Johann Adam Hiller (1728-1804) and Bastien und Bastienne (1768) by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91).
Melodrama
First used in Rousseau's Pygmalion (1762), it consisted of spoken dialogue with orchestral background. Other examples were Ariadne auf Naxos (1775) and Medea (1778) by Georg Benda (1722-95) and Mozart's unfinished Zaide (1779).
